# Public Health Notes

> Your partner for better health


## Posts

- [Meningococcal Meningitis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/meningococcal-meningitis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): Table of Contents ToggleWhat is Meningococcal Meningitis?Why Meningococcal Diseases is Life-Threatening?What are the Causes of Meningitis?Characteristics of the Neisseria meningitidis BacteriaSerogroups of Meningococci and Their ImportanceHow Does Meningococcal Infection Transmit?What are the Risk Factors for Meningococcal Meningitis?What are the Signs and Symptoms of Meningococcal Meningitis?Common Symptoms in infantsCommon Symptoms in children and adultsHow is Meningococcal Meningitis Diagnosed?Laboratory DiagnosisImagingImportance of Rapid DiagnosisHow can we Treat Meningococcal Meningitis?How Can We Prevent & Control Meningitis?Meningococcal Vaccines: Types and SchedulesRole of Vaccination in Outbreak PreventionInfection Control and Public Health MeasuresPublic Health ImportanceGlobal Epidemiology of Meningococcal MeningitisMeningitis Belt of Africa and Seasonal TrendsSurveillance and Rapid [...]
- [Botulism: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/botulism-causes-symptoms-and-prevention/): What is Botulism? Botulism is a rare but serious bacterial disease caused by a neurotoxin produced by the rod-shaped bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Botulism affects the nervous system and can lead to severe illness, difficulty breathing, paralysis and even death. Clostridium botulinum produces seven toxin types (A–G), but only types A, B, E, and F are known to cause disease in humans. Why is Botulism a Medical Emergency? Botulism is considered a medical emergency because the bacteria produce a powerful toxin that attacks the nervous system. This toxin can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, difficulty in breathing, and may lead to death [...]
- [Anthrax: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/anthrax-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Anthrax? Anthrax is a zoonotic disease mainly affecting herbivores and domestic animals, with humans infected through animal contact. It is a rare but serious illness caused by Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive, spore-forming, non-motile bacterium found naturally in soil worldwide. Anthrax spores can survive for decades in the environment. Human infection occurs through skin contact, inhalation of spores, or gastrointestinal exposure from contaminated meat. Why Anthrax is a Public Health Concern? Anthrax can cause serious illness and death in humans and animals. The spores of anthrax survive in soil for many years, making outbreaks hard to prevent. Humans can [...]
- [Tetanus: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/tetanus-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What Is Tetanus? (Lockjaw Explained) Tetanus is a serious disease of the nervous system caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium tetani. The toxin affects the nerves and leads to painful muscle stiffness and spasms, especially in the jaw and neck. Due to this characteristic jaw stiffness, tetanus is commonly referred to as lockjaw.  Why Tetanus is a Preventable yet Deadly Disease? Tetanus is a preventable yet deadly disease because it can be easily avoided through vaccination, but once it develops, it can cause severe, life-threatening complications. What are the Causes and Pathogens of Tetanus? Tetanus is caused [...]
- [Pertussis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/pertussis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Pertussis (Whooping Cough)? Pertussis, commonly known as ‘whooping cough’, is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Pertussis is also known as the 100-day cough due to its longevity and severe violent coughing fits (sometimes ending with a whoop sound). Pertussis is dangerous for the infants. However, its vaccine preventable. Why Pertussis Remains a Global Health Threat? Pertussis continues to pose a significant global health concern despite widespread vaccination. Infection rates declined after successful vaccination campaigns, but the disease persists due to several factors: Waning immunity: Protection from vaccination or previous infection decreases over time. [...]
- [Diphtheria: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/diphtheria-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Diphtheria? Diphtheria is a serious bacterial disease that mainly affects the lining of the nose and throat, caused by Corynebacterium diphtheria. Diphtheria is a highly contagious illness caused by bacteria that produce harmful toxins. The infection spreads through respiratory droplets released when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Diphtheria can affect anyone, but it is most common in unvaccinated children. Why is Diphtheria Still a Public Health Concern? Easy transmission through respiratory droplets, close contact, and overcrowded living conditions leads to rapid spread. Low immunization coverage allows diphtheria to persist, especially among unvaccinated populations. Weak healthcare and surveillance [...]
- [Typhoid Fever: Causes, Symptoms and Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/typhoid-fever-causes-symptoms-and-prevention/): What is Typhoid Fever? Typhoid fever, also called enteric fever, is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica (S. enterica) serotypes, Typhi (most common) and Paratyphi A, B, and C. Typhoid fever causing bacteria is generally found in contaminated water, food, urine or faeces. Typhoid fever affects the small intestine and leads to high fever, abdominal pain, and other symptoms. Global Burden of Typhoid Fever Worldwide Burden of Typhoid Fever Typhoid fever causes considerable illness and death in resource-limited regions such as parts of Asia, Africa, and South America, where access to clean drinking water is limited, and sanitation is [...]
- [Plague: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/plague-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Plague? Plague is a communicable disease that affects rodents, as well as some animals and humans, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Although plague is now rare and treatable, it remains a public health concern in certain regions and can be fatal if diagnosis is delayed. History of Plague: Black Death and Modern Outbreaks Historically, plague is an ancient infectious disease responsible for widespread pandemics with very high mortality. It occurred in three major pandemics: the Justinian Plague (6th century), the Black Death (14th century), and the Third Pandemic (19th–20th century), spreading across continents through trade and migration. The Black [...]
- [Leprosy: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/leprosy-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Leprosy? Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease and a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, upper respiratory tract mucosa, and the eyes. Although leprosy is chronic infectious disease, it is curable and early treatment prevents disability. What are the Myths and Facts About Leprosy? Myths about Leprosy Leprosy is hereditary. Leprosy is a curse or punishment. Leprosy has no cure. Leprosy causes body parts to fall off. Fact about Leprosy Leprosy has nothing to do with genetics; it can only be caused [...]
- [Astrocytoma (Brain Cancer): Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/astrocytoma-brain-cancer/): What is a Astrocytoma (Brain Cancer)? An astrocytoma is a type of cancer that occur in the brain or spinal cord. Astrocytoma is a brain tumor that is most common in children. It can start anywhere in the brain and spinal cord, including the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem and eye nerve pathways. Glioma is the most common type of brain tumor, and an astrocytoma is a type of Glioma. In a child, an astrocytoma is usually found at the base of the brain; biopsy or surgery is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Types of Astrocytoma in Children An astrocytoma may [...]
- [Bile Duct Cancer: Risk Factors, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/bile-duct-cancer-risk-factors-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Bile Duct Cancer (Cholangiocarcinoma)? Bile Duct Cancer is a rare type of cancer that develops in the bile ducts. Bile ducts are the tubes that carry bile from the liver to the small intestine. Bile duct cancer is also known as also called Cholangiocarcinoma. This cancer begins when cells in the bile duct grow uncontrollably. Anatomy of the Bile Duct System Bile duct consists of the organs and ducts, which are the bile ducts, gall bladder, and associated structures that are involved in the production and transportation of bile. The function is to drain waste products from the [...]
- [Anal Cancer: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/anal-cancer-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Anal Cancer? Anal cancer is the rarest type of cancer that develops in the tissues lining our anal canal or in the skin near its opening. Anal cancer forms in the anus and is often caused by Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) Most anal cancers are typically a squamous cell cancer and are curable with radiation, chemotherapy and surgery, if detected early. What are the Differences Between Anal Cancer and Colorectal Cancer? In general terms, anal cancer and colorectal cancer is often perceived as the same. However, there are specific differences between anal and colorectal cancer. Anal cancer affects [...]
- [Adrenocortical Carcinoma (ACC): Types, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/adrenocortical-carcinoma-acc-symptoms-prevention-and-treatment/): What is Adrenocortical Carcinoma (ACC)? Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is malignant cancer in the adrenal cortex, the outer layer of our adrenal glands. The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys. Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare type of cancer occurring in one in a million people. However, the seriousness of this cancer demands adequate prevention, diagnosis and timely treatment. There are basically two types of adrenocortical carcinoma; Functioning Adrenocortical Carcinoma Non- functioning Adrenocortical Carcinoma What are the Differences Between Benign and Malignant Adrenocortical Tumors? There are multiple differences between benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors. The differences mainly lie on the basis [...]
- [Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Symptoms, Prevention & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/acute-lymphoblastic-leukemia-symptoms-prevention-treatment/): What is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL), also known as acute lymphocytic leukemia, is a rapid growing cancer of the blood and bone marrow that affects white blood cells called lymphocytes. Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia originates in the lymphoblasts, which are immature white blood cells. The abnormal cells grow quickly and interfere with the production of healthy Red blood cells (which carry oxygen) White blood cells (which fights infection) Platelets (which helps in blood clot) ALL is the most common type of cancer in children. Classification and Types of Leukemia Leukemia is broadly classified into four types: Acute [...]
- [Need Assessment: Steps, Advantages and Limitations](https://publichealthnotes.com/need-assessment-steps-advantages-and-limitations/): What is Need Assessment? A needs assessment is the process of gathering information about an expressed or disguised organizational need that might be met by ensuring the allocation of necessary resources, conducting training or other means. Need assessment is a process used to determine the gaps between the existing conditions (what is) and desired conditions (what should be). The need assessment is necessary to improve the performance of an individual/ organization/community and provide evidence-based recommendations for solving their problems The purpose of a needs assessment is to respond or answer for some familiar questions: why, who, how, what, and when. [...]
- [Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)](https://publichealthnotes.com/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/): What is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) is a severe mental health condition that can develop in a person after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. PTSD generally occurs after events like natural disasters, war, serious accidents, abuse and violence. PTSD occurs in people of any age, profession, culture and fields. PTSD is categorized under trauma-and stressor-related disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). PTSD progresses in about 1 in 3 people who experience severe trauma. Still, there is not enough understanding of why some people develop the disorder [...]
- [Schizophrenia: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/schizophrenia-causes-symptoms-treatment/):  What is Schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder in which people take reality strangely. Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language an behavior. Schizophrenia might result in some mixture of deliriums, illusions, and extremely muddled thinking and manners that blights daily functioning and can be restricting. People with schizophrenia need lifelong treatment. Early treatment may support to get symptoms under control before severe difficulties progress and might help to recover the long-term view. Schizophrenia is not just a medical issue—it is a public health concern. It contributes to disability, unemployment, and increased mortality [...]
- [Biopsy: Types, Importance & Benefits](https://publichealthnotes.com/biopsy-types-importance-benefits/): What is Biopsy? Biopsy is a fundamental diagnostic medical procedure that involves the extraction of tissue or cells from a living organism for microscopic examination. Biopsy plays a crucial role in diagnosing various diseases, particularly cancer, infections, and inflammatory conditions A biopsy includes taking a sample of tissue from the body to inspect it even more intently. A specialist prescribes a biopsy when an underlying test proposes that a zone of tissue in the body is not ordinary. Specialists may consider a zone of irregular tissue a sore, a tumor, or a mass. These are general words used to stress [...]
- [Stakeholders Engagement](https://publichealthnotes.com/stakeholder-engagement/): Key Concept of Stakeholders Engagement The term ‘stakeholder’ was promoted by R. Edward Freeman in his seminal 1984 work, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach Stakeholder engagement is the act of connecting with the stakeholders. Stakeholder engagement is a process which an organization uses to listen, dialogue and respond to its stakeholders. Stakeholder engagement refers to the systematic effort by an organization to involve stakeholders in its decision-making processes. As we know that stakeholder is “any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives”, stakeholder engagement includes the level of engagement of those [...]
- [Community Mental Health Service: Features, Advantages & Challenges](https://publichealthnotes.com/community-mental-health-service-features-advantages-challenges/): What is Community Mental Health Service? Community mental health service is a decentralized concept of mental health services which is focused on the community setting. Community mental health service refers to the mental health service provided to the people, outside the institutional setting or premises. These services are extensively delivered in the schools, community parks, workplaces, homes etc. Community mental health service is an important concept to bridge the gap between mental health needs of a people and services available to them, particularly in a low-resource setting. Community-based care is intended to reduce the cost of mental health care provided [...]
- [Food Toxins: Types, Consequences and Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/food-toxins-types-consequences-and-prevention/): What are Food Toxins? Food toxins are the harmful substances that contaminate the food and have adverse effect on human health. Food toxins are both naturally occurring or artificially introduced in the food Food toxins are the constituents comprising of a large range of particles either created by fungi, algae, plants, or bacteria metabolism with detrimental effects on humans or other through human activities itself. Food toxins can be classified into 4 groups based on their origin: Naturally occurring toxins: found in some plants, animals and microorganisms Environmental toxins: introduced through pollution Processing induced toxins: toxins formed during the preparation [...]
- [Program Evaluation: Importance, Methods & Advantages](https://publichealthnotes.com/program-evaluation-importance-methods-advantages/): What is Program Evaluation? Program evaluation is a systematic assessment of the processes and outcomes of a program with the aim of determining its worth, merit and significance. Program evaluation helps the evaluation and program managers to makers make informed decisions based on the evidence generated. Program evaluation is a procedure that critically scrutinizes a program. It includes gathering and examining information about a program’s activities, features, and conclusions. The purpose of program evaluation is to make verdicts about a program, to expand its effectiveness, and/or to inform programming resolutions A program evaluation is related to a roadmap. It explains [...]
- [Nipah Virus: Transmission, Symptoms & Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/nipah-virus-transmission-symptoms-prevention/): What is Nipah Virus? Nipah virus is a zoonotic virus i.e. it spreads from animals to humans. Nipah virus is a highly pathogenic and deadly virus which has high fatality rate In ill people, it causes a range of ailments from asymptomatic (subclinical) infection to acute respiratory illness and lethal encephalitis. The virus can cause severe disease in animals for instance pigs, resulting in substantial economic losses for agriculturalists. Though the Nipah virus has caused simply a few identified outbreaks in Asia, it affects wide range of animals and causes life-threatening disease and death in people, making it a public [...]
- [Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)](https://publichealthnotes.com/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-copd/): What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease COPD? Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lung disease that creates difficulty in breathing. COPD is a progressive and devastating respiratory condition that limits the airflow in the lungs and thus making difficult to breathe. COPD is not only a medical challenge but also a societal challenge with wide range of consequences for the health system and quality of life of a person. COPD is one of the major causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Over 90% of COPD occur in Low-and-Middle Income Countries (LMICs) There are two leading forms of COPD: [...]
- [Different Methods of Health Education](https://publichealthnotes.com/different-methods-of-health-education/): What is Health Education? Health education refers to the dissemination of health information and messages to the individuals and communities. According to World Health Organization (WHO), health education is “any combination of learning experiences designed to help individuals and communities improve their health, by increasing their knowledge or influencing their attitudes.” Health education is a critical aspect which uncovers the ways to improve health and well-being of the individuals through information dissemination. Health education empowers people with change in their knowledge, attitude and skills to make informed decisions. It includes planned learning activities which focuses on health promotion, disease prevention [...]
- [Vector-Borne Diseases (VBD): Types, Prevention & Control](https://publichealthnotes.com/vector-borne-diseases-vbd-types-prevention-control/): What are Vector-Borne Diseases (VBDs)? Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods. Vectors are the organisms that transmits or carries pathogens from one host to another. Vector-borne diseases are human ailments initiated by parasites, viruses, and bacteria that are spread by mosquitoes, sandflies, triatomine bugs, blackflies, ticks, tsetse flies, mites, snails and lice. Every single year there are over 700,000 deaths from illnesses such as malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and onchocerciasis, universally. Some of the common vectors are: Mosquitoes Ticks Sandflies Tsetse flies Blackflies etc. [...]
- [Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI)](https://publichealthnotes.com/gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-gesi/): Key Concept of GESI GESI is composed of two closely interconnected essentials: Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Gender equality is about changing the dissemination of prospects, adoptions, and means obtainable to women and men so that they have the same authority to form their existence and contribute in the process. Social inclusion refers to the course of enlightening the settings of underprivileged individuals and groups – such as immigrants, native peoples, or other minorities GESI is a methodology that brings women and men together from all the societal assemblies (background, class, economy, age, infirmity, geographical locations) in all administrative, commercial [...]
- [Acid Rain: Causes, Consequences & Challenges](https://publichealthnotes.com/acid-rain-causes-consequences-challenges/): Key Concept of Acid Rain Acid rain refers to a precipitation (rain, snow, fog or dust) which contains higher levels of nitric and sulfuric acid. Acid rain is caused by a chemical response that activates when composites similar to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO) are not restricted into the air. The term ‘Acid rain’ does not only include rainfalls but includes all forms of precipitation. Acid rain occurs when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released in the atmosphere mixes with water vapor to form acidic compounds. These elements can increase very high into the atmosphere, where they combine [...]
- [Measures of Central Tendency](https://publichealthnotes.com/measures-of-central-tendency/): What is Central Tendency? Central tendency is defined as the statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution of the dataset. Central tendency is focused on providing an accurate description of the entire data. Central tendency is an expressive summary of a dataset over and done with a particular value that redirects the focal point of the data distribution. Along with the changeability (dispersion) of a dataset, the central tendency is a subdivision of descriptive statistics. The central tendency is one of the ideal theories in statistics. Though it does not offer information concerning the individual [...]
- [Occupational Health and Safety: Importance, Types and Challenges](https://publichealthnotes.com/occupational-health-and-safety/): What is Occupational Health? Occupational health is a branch of public health concerned with the physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in all occupations. Occupational health focuses on the safety, prevention and management of work or work-place related injuries, illnesses and diseases. According to World Health Organization (WHO), occupational health is defined as “the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations.” What is Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)? Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is comprehensive framework focused on safeguarding the well-being of individuals in the workplace by preventing [...]
- [Beijing Conference: Achievements and Directions](https://publichealthnotes.com/beijing-conference-achievements-and-directions/): What is Beijing Conference? Beijing Conference is the Fourth World Conference on Women held in the year 1995. Assembled in Beijing on September 1995, the year of the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the United Nations, 17000 participants and 30000 activists participated for this conference. Beijing conference strongly forwarded a bold mindset to advance the objectives of equality, development, and peace for all women universally in the concern of all humankind Beijing Conference remains as a major cornerstone in the fight for gender equality. Recognizing the power of speech of all women universally and taking note of the multiplicity [...]
- [ICPD: Key Highlights, Implications & Limitations](https://publichealthnotes.com/icpd-key-highlights-and-results/): Introduction The ICPD (International Conference on Population and Development) was held in Cairo in 1994 where 179 Member states and 11000 participants participated to ensure rights-based people centered approach to population and development. ICPD sets out a visionary plan for progressing human welfare that places the human privileges of individuals, rather than statistical population aims, at the focal point of the global improvement agenda. ICPDs Programme of Action (PoA) set out goals of 20-year period (1994-2024). Key Highlights of ICPD ICPD shifted the global focus from population and demographics to individual rights, Reproductive Health (RH) and gender equality. A 20-year [...]
- [Multimorbidity: Risk Groups, Challenges & Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/multimorbidity-risk-groups-challenges-prevention/): What are Multimorbidity? Multimorbidity is a condition where an individual suffers from two or more than two chronic health burden. Multimorbidity/multiple morbidity is the co-existence of two or more chronic health problems in an individual. Multimorbidity are also used to define the sum of injuries, the number, and brutality of morbidities, and the sum of number and severity of morbidities per coexisting restrictions in functional status or infirmity. Multimorbidity is more common in underprivileged groups, therefore subsidizing to health disparities. Multimorbidity is repeatedly long-term health situations, which includes multifaceted and continuing care, thus presents a complex, multifaceted challenge which demands [...]
- [Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases](https://publichealthnotes.com/communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases/): What are Communicable Diseases? Communicable diseases, also known as infectious diseases, are the illnesses caused by microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. Communicable diseases are considered as the ‘Contagious burden’. Communicable diseases are those types of diseases, usually triggered by some bacteria, viruses or some other kinds of pathogens, which transfers from one individual to another individual through various routes i.e. interaction with body fluids, inhalation of an airborne virus, insect bites, etc. These diseases can be transmitted from one person to another, either directly (e.g., through physical contact or droplets) or indirectly (e.g., via contaminated surfaces, water, or [...]
- [Pilot Testing: Importance, Steps & Challenges](https://publichealthnotes.com/pilot-testing-importance-steps-challenges/): What is Pilot Testing? Pilot testing, also known as a ‘pre-testing’ or ‘trial run’, is a small-scale preliminary study conducted before the actual research or project begins. Pilot testing is used to test research instruments such as questionnaires, interview guidelines, experiments, or any intervention plan. The aim of pilot testing is to identify potential problems and refine tools or procedures to improve the quality and reliability of the main study. It is “dress rehearsals” of survey set-ups that are executed to conclude whether errors exist which are needed to be pointed out in respect to the production survey in the [...]
- [Confidence Interval: Interpretation & Importance](https://publichealthnotes.com/confidence-interval-interpretation-importance/): What is Confidence Interval (CI)? The confidence interval refers to the fact that how sure or confident we are about the results. Confidence Interval is a fundamental statistical tool that helps quantify the uncertainty surrounding our estimates. A Confidence Interval is a range of standards where we can legitimately assure about true value that lies in. Confidence intervals outcomes are generally in number whereas confidence levels are expressed in percentage. A confidence interval is a range of values, derived from sample data, that is likely to contain the value of an unknown population parameter (like a population mean or proportion). In simple terms, [...]
- [Understanding P-Value in Research](https://publichealthnotes.com/understanding-p-value-in-research/): What is P-value in Research? P-value is a valid outcome to check the level of significance in statistical analysis. P-value stands for ‘Probability value’ A p-value is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the observed results, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. It is also known as the “observed significance level” for the test hypothesis. In simpler terms, it quantifies the evidence against the null hypothesis. The number that lies between O and 1 are the P-value and they are understood in the following way: A small p-value (typically ≤ 0.05) specifies solid proof in [...]
- [Research Bias and Its Types](https://publichealthnotes.com/research-bias-and-its-types/): What is Bias in Research? Bias in research refers to systematic errors that can affect the validity, reliability, and credibility of study findings. Bias can influence the planning, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or reporting of research results. Bias refers to the facts that derive from a specific perspective. What is Research Bias? Research bias is a deviation from the truth or accuracy in data, results, or interpretations caused by the research process or researchers’ expectations. Research bias can be both intentional or unintentional and may arise at any stage of the study including from sampling and data collection to analysis [...]
- [Sampling: Types, Methods and Techniques](https://publichealthnotes.com/sampling/): What is Sampling? Let us first understand the difference between population and sample. A population is an entire group of people that we want to draw conclusions about. It is a group which can answer all research questions. On the other hand, sample is a specific group of people/individuals from whom we will collect the data. It is a small part of the population taken to do the research. Sampling is a process of taking/deciding samples for something. Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number from the population so that by studying the sample, and understanding the properties [...]
- [Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV](https://publichealthnotes.com/prevention-of-mother-to-child-transmission-pmtct-of-hiv/): What is PMTCT? PMTCT stands for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission. PMTCT is a public health program that aims to reduce the transmission of HIV/AIDS from mother to child. It is also known as the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV/AIDS. PMTCT is an intervention to prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS from mother to child during pregnancy, labor, delivery and breastfeeding. Goals of PMTCT Initiate Antiretroviral therapy to HIV positive women Provide counseling and support for optimal infant feeding to HIV-positive mothers Increase the involvement and support of male partner in PMTCT services Improve uptake of infant HIV testing, treatment, and [...]
- [Sustainable Diet: Characteristics, Advantages & Challenges](https://publichealthnotes.com/sustainable-diet-characteristics-advantages-challenges/): What is Sustainable Diet? Sustainable diet is a food pattern that is healthy for the people and environment. Sustainable diet is a complex and multidimensional concept and refers to the diet with low environmental impacts. The United Nations Food & Agriculture Organisation(UN FAO) defines sustainable diets as: “Those diets with low environmental impacts which contribute to food and nutrition security and to healthy life for present and future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources.” The definition by [...]
- [Skin Cancer: Types, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/skin-cancer-types-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Skin Cancer? Skin cancer is defined as the uncontrolled proliferation of aberrant cells in the epidermis, the skin’s outermost layer, produced by unrepaired DNA damage that causes mutations. Skin cancer, as other cancers is a condition characterized by uncontrolled growth of cells in the body. Skin cancer occurs when cancer begins in the skin. These mutations cause skin cells to proliferate and produce malignant tumors. Among all types of cancer, skin cancer holds the highest occurrence rate.  Key Facts Given that the skin is the body’s largest organ, it’s expected that skin cancer is the most common type [...]
- [Lung Cancer: Types, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/lung-cancer-types-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Lung Cancer? Lung cancer is a common and serious form of cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the lungs. It poses a significant health concern, leading to severe consequences and potential fatality. Specifically, lung cancer refers to cancers originating in the lungs, typically in the bronchi, bronchioles, or alveoli—the airways and small air sacs. Cancers originating elsewhere and spreading to the lungs are generally identified by their site of origin. Key Facts Lung cancer poses a significant threat to public health, resulting in a substantial number of fatalities on a global scale. It ranks [...]
- [Kidney Cancer: Types, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/kidney-cancer-types-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Kidney Cancer? The disease kidney cancer, also known as renal cancer, starts in the kidneys. Kidney cancer occurs when healthy kidney cells in either one or both develop uncontrollably into a mass (referred to as a tumor). Cancer occurs when something causes a change in the cells, causing them to divide out of control. A malignant or cancerous tumor has the potential to spread to nearby tissues and crucial organs which is referred to as metastasis. Key Facts The 14th most frequent cancer in the world is renal cell adenocarcinoma, generally known as kidney cancer. It ranks as the [...]
- [Rubella: Causes, Transmission and Risk Factors](https://publichealthnotes.com/rubella-causes-transmission-and-risk-factors/): What is Rubella? Rubella, often known as German measles or three-day measles, is an infectious viral infection characterized by a distinct red rash. While most people may only have minor or negligible symptoms, if contracted by pregnant women, it can pose serious threat to the fetus. During the first trimester of pregnancy, a maternal infection with rubella can result in congenital rubella syndrome which is a fetal malformation condition. A pregnant woman who develops rubella runs the risk of her unborn child developing serious, permanent birth abnormalities or perhaps death. This viral infection is brought on by an RNA virus and primarily affects [...]
- [Colorectal Cancer](https://publichealthnotes.com/colorectal-cancer/): What is Colorectal Cancer? Colorectal cancer, alternatively referred to as bowel cancer, colon cancer, or rectal cancer, encompasses any form of cancer that impacts the colon and rectum (Note: colon and rectum are the vital components of the digestive system). Sometimes, the colon or rectum may develop abnormal growths known as ‘Polyps’. As time passes, certain polyps have the potential to transform into cancerous cells. Unlike many other types of cancer, colorectal cancer can often be prevented through regular screening and is highly manageable if detected at an early stage. Key Facts Colorectal cancer, ranking as the third most prevalent [...]
- [Breast Cancer: Types, Causes and Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/breast-cancer/): What is Breast Cancer? Breast cancer is a condition in which the body’s cells develop and enlarge out of control, resulting in a mass of tissue known as a tumor. Breast cancer may begin in either the left or right breast. Breast cancer originates in the lining cells (epithelium) of either the ducts (85%) or lobules (15%) within the glandular tissue of the breast. The cancerous development is initially contained within the duct or lobule (“in situ”), where it often exhibits no symptoms and has a low risk of metastasizing. These in situ (stage 0) tumors may develop over time [...]
- [Bladder Cancer: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/bladder-cancer/): What is Bladder Cancer? Bladder cancer is the most common type of urologic cancer and one with the greatest recurrence rate as well. Bladder cancer occurs when uncontrolled growth of bladder cells occurs. The bladder is an organ in the lower abdomen that has a hollow, balloon-like form and retains urine. Urothelial cells, which line the interior of bladder, are where bladder cancer typically develops. Ureters, which connect kidneys to bladder, as well as kidneys themselves, also contain urothelial cells. Key Facts Bladder cancer ranks as the tenth most common type of cancer worldwide. In men, it is the sixth [...]
- [Healthcare in Prisons](https://publichealthnotes.com/healthcare-in-prisons/): What does Healthcare in Prisons Mean? Healthcare in prisons refers to the provision of medical and mental health services to inmates in correctional facilities. It entails providing inmates with access to essential healthcare services such as primary care, specialist care, dental care, and mental health services. Healthcare in prisons attempts to guarantee that jailed people receive the same level of treatment as those who are not, and that their health requirements are satisfied while they are imprisoned. Healthcare in Prison involves treating acute and chronic illnesses, managing chronic diseases, providing preventative care, and providing mental health services to inmates to [...]
- [Poliomyelitis: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/poliomyelitis-causes-symptoms-prevention/): What is Poliomyelitis? The name poliomyelitis stems from the Greek word “polio” meaning “grey” and “myelon” meaning “marrow.” Poliomyelitis is an infectious disease brought on by the poliovirus, a member of the Picornaviridae family of the genus Enterovirus. Poliomyelitis, often shortened to polio, is an extremely contagious viral disease which attacks the nerve system and can cause irreversible paralysis. It is spread by lymphatic replication and fecal-oral contamination. Key Facts Poliomyelitis primarily affects children under the age of 5, although it can affect older children and adults, An infection causes permanent paralysis 1 in 200 times among which 5-10% of [...]
- [Measles: Symptoms, Prevention & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/measles-symptoms-prevention-treatment/): What is Measles? Measles is a highly contagious serious airborne disease caused by a virus. The measles is an acute viral respiratory illness that usually affects children and is very contagious to the extent that it can lead to severe complications and death. Measles is an airborne disease that is most recognizable for its distinctive red blotchy rash. It can easily spread from an infected person through breathe, sneeze or cough. The disease can be extremely dangerous, and its consequences might result in hospitalization or even death. Rubeola, which should not be confused with rubella (German measles), is another name [...]
- [Chikungunya: Transmission, Symptoms & Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/chikungunya-transmission-symptoms-prevention/): What is Chikungunya? Chikungunya fever is a disease that results from a virus transmitted through mosquito bites. Chikungunya is caused by the chikungunya virus and is characterized by a sudden onset of fever and joint pain, which can be excruciating and incapacitating. The virus that leads to chikungunya is a type of RNA virus that belongs to the Toga viridae family. The name ‘chikungunya’ means “that which bends up” or “stooped walk” due to the virus causing extreme muscle and joint pain. Key Facts After being discovered in approximately 40 locations across Asia, Africa, Europe, and most recently the Americas, [...]
- [Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Health Care](https://publichealthnotes.com/artificial-intelligence-ai-in-health-care/): What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the term used to describe the development of computer systems that are capable of carrying out tasks that would typically require human intelligence. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intellectual functions by technology, particularly computer systems. Healthcare, banking, transportation, and entertainment are just a few of the many domains where AI has applicability. What does Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Health Care Mean? The use of machine learning (ML) algorithms and other cognitive technologies in healthcare is referred to as artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare. AI in healthcare is used [...]
- [Adolescent Health: Problems and Management](https://publichealthnotes.com/adolescent-health-problems-and-management/): What is Adolescent Health? Adolescence is the period of life between childhood and adulthood, lasting from the ages of 10 to 19 years. The physical, mental, and social well-being of adolescents is referred to as adolescent health. Young people go through major physical and emotional changes at this critical developmental stage, which can have a long-term effect on their health and well-being. A wide number of topics are included under the umbrella of adolescent health, such as sexual and reproductive health, mental health, substance abuse, nutrition, physical activity, and injury prevention. Additionally, it covers areas like Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) [...]
- [Prostate Cancer: Causes, Types and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/prostate-cancer-causes-types-and-treatment/): What is Prostate Cancer? Prostate cancer is a type of cancer that affects the prostate gland in men, which is responsible for producing a fluid that forms a part of semen. Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among men and develops when the cells in the prostate gland start to grow uncontrollably. It often grows slowly and may not cause any symptoms in its early stages. However, in advanced stages, it can spread to other parts of the body and cause severe complications. Early detection through regular screening tests, such as a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) [...]
- [Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH)](https://publichealthnotes.com/postpartum-hemorrhage-pph/): What is Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH)? The World Health Organization (WHO) defines postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) as ‘blood loss that exceeds 500 milliliter (ml) after a vaginal birth or 1000 ml after a cesarean section.’ Postpartum hemorrhage, or PPH, occurs when a woman has significant bleeding soon after delivering baby. Postpartum hemorrhage is a severe yet uncommon condition after the birth of a child. PPH often manifests within 24 hours of delivery, however it can sometimes appear up to 12 weeks after delivery. Moreover, it is defined as any quantity of vaginal bleeding after delivery that result in abnormal vital signs or [...]
- [UNAIDS Gender Assessment Tool (GAT)](https://publichealthnotes.com/unaids-gender-assessment-tool-gat/): UNAIDS Gender Assessment Tool (GAT) The UNAIDS Agenda for Accelerated Country Action for Women, Girls, Gender Equality and HIV 2010-2014 (the Agenda) was introduced in 2010 and provided a series of strategic actions to better address the needs and safeguard the rights of women, girls, and gender equality in HIV responses. The Agenda, which was designed around three suggestions, concentrated on implementation at the national level. According to a mid-term evaluation of the Agenda that was given to the UNAIDS Programme Coordination Board in December 2012, a more methodical approach to data collecting is required for evidence-based planning and budgeting [...]
- [Asthma: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/asthma-causes-symptoms-treatment/): What is Asthma? Asthma is a common lung disease that leads to short-term breathing difficulties. Asthma is a chronic lung condition that involves inflammation in the airways of the lungs. This inflammation causes the airways to become restricted due to stiffness in the surrounding muscles and makes the person difficult to breathe. Asthma causes the airways to constrict, swell, and occasionally generate more mucus. It is characterized by inflammation of the airways, which can cause breathing difficulties, chest tightness, wheezing, and coughing. Besides making it hard to breathe, asthmic condition can also hinder the performance of certain physical activities, rendering [...]
- [Osteoporosis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/osteoporosis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Osteoporosis? The word ‘Osteoporosis’ means ‘porous bone.’ Osteoporosis is a condition that is characterized by low bone mass, degradation of bone tissue, and disturbance of bone microarchitecture. It is a condition where the bone strength becomes weak and increases the risk of fractures. Osteopororis develops when more bone is broken down than replaced. Osteoporosis is also referred to as “silent sickness” due to condition in which a person may not notice any symptoms until a bone fractures, typically a bone in the hip, spine, or wrist. Osteoporosis is a condition that makes bones weak and brittle, so fragile [...]
- [Jaundice: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/jaundice-causes-symptoms-treatment/): What is Jaundice? Jaundice is a condition in which the skin, whites of the eyes and mucous membranes turn yellow because of a high level of bilirubin. Jaundice is a yellow coloring of the skin, mucus membranes and eyes. Jaundice, also known as ‘icterus’ is a clinical sign of high serum bilirubin. The accumulation of high serum bilirubin results in this condition where the skin, mucous membranes, and sclera (the whites of the eyes) to turn yellow. The yellow coloring comes from the bilirubin, a byproduct of old red blood cells. The liver secretes a fluid called bile and red [...]
- [Thyroid: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/thyroid-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Thyroid Disease? Thyroid disease is a medical condition that prevents the thyroid gland from producing the appropriate amount of hormones as required by the body. Thyroid disease is a state of body that where thyroid gland is from making the right amount of hormones. It is a condition where the formation of hormones by the thyroid gland is disturbed. Some of the several types of thyroid disease include: Goiter: enlargement of the thyroid gland. Hyperthyroidism: When your thyroid gland produces more thyroid hormones than your body requires, this condition is known as hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism: When your thyroid gland [...]
- [Heart Disease: Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/heart-disease-types-symptoms-treatment/): What is Heart Disease? Heart disease is any condition that affects the heart. Heart disease includes coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, rheumatic heart disease and other conditions; some of which can be avoided. It is sometimes referred as cardiovascular disease (CVD), ischemic heart disease, or heart and blood vessel disease. It is a collection of diverse disorders, the majority of which have atherosclerosis as their underlying cause of development. Chronic diseases like CVD gradually progress throughout life and go for a long time without showing any symptoms. Usually, symptoms are only present in advanced disease, or the first symptom may [...]
- [Food Poisoning: Symptoms & Preventive Measures](https://publichealthnotes.com/food-poisoning-symptoms-preventive-measures/): What is Food Poisoning? Food poisoning simply means the illness caused by the consumption of food. Food poisoning is a type of food borne illness that people get from something that they ate or drank. This poisoning caused by food is brought on by consuming contaminated food. In these cases the food is generally contaminated with bacteria, such as salmonella or Escherichia coli (E. coli), or a virus, such as the Noro virus. Most people recover without medication in a few days and it’s often not serious. Poisoning can occasionally be brought on by the toxins these organisms produce. Causes [...]
- [Cervical cancer: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/cervical-cancer-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Cervical Cancer? Cervical cancer is the development or growth of abnormal cells in the lining of the cervix. Cervical cancer is the cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix- the lower portion of the uterus that attaches to the vagina. The most common cause of cervical cancer is Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). HPV accounts large majority (95%) of cervical cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of cervical cancer. Before cancer develops in the cervix, the cervical tissue undergoes changes known as dysplasia, in which abnormal cells start to emerge in the tissue. If [...]
- [Complementary Feeding: Principles, Characteristics & Benefits](https://publichealthnotes.com/complementary-feeding-principles-characteristics-benefits/): What is Complementary Feeding? Complementary feeding is the food that is given in addition to the breastfeeding to children 6-59 months of age. Complementary feeding simply means ‘diet of 6-59 months age children given in addition to breastfeeding‘. The term ‘complementary’ refers to “in addition to breastfeeding“ The word “complementary” is crucial; these first foods work in addition to breast milk, not as a substitute. The goal of complementary feeding is that the foods introduced to a child should complement breast milk, not replace it. It is a process that starts when breast milk alone is no longer sufficient to [...]
- [Obesity: Causes, Prevention & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/obesity-causes-prevention-treatment/): What is Obesity? Obesity refers to abnormal or excessive fat accumulation in the body that possess risk to the health. Obesity is a complex, chronic illness that can lead to excessive body fat and, sometimes, poor health. Obesity is a complex medical problem that increases the risk of other diseases and health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, hypertension etc. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), obesity is a condition where a body mass index (BMI) over 30. WHO defines obesity for children and adults as follows: For children under five years of age: weight-for-height greater than 3 standard deviations above the WHO [...]
- [Stroke: Types, Symptoms & Prevention](https://publichealthnotes.com/stroke-types-symptoms-prevention/): What is Stroke? Stroke, often commonly known as brain attack, is a condition when something blocks blood supply to the brain or when the blood vessel in the brain bursts out. A stroke is an acute clinical event that causes a focal or generalized neurological disturbance that is connected to impaired cerebral blood flow and lasts for more than 24 hours and results in death with no other known cause than vascular origin. It occurs when a blood artery in the brain bursts and starts to bleed, or when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted. Stroke gets its name from [...]
- [Menopause: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis](https://publichealthnotes.com/menopause-causes-symptoms-diagnosis/): What is Menopause? Menopause is one of the life stages for women that signals the end of their reproductive years. Menopause is a point in time 12 months after the women’s last period/menstruation. It is a natural biological process that generally starts from age 45 to 55 years in women. This marks the completion of menstrual cycles Menopause occurs when a woman or a person who was assigned as female at birth (AFAB) has gone 12 months in a row without having a menstrual cycle. They might experience symptoms like hot flashes or notice abnormalities in their menstrual periods. Causes [...]
- [Vision Impairment & Eye Care](https://publichealthnotes.com/vision-impairment-eye-care/): What is Vision Impairment & Eye Care? Vision impairment refers to the discomfort or inability to see comfortably in day-to-day life. Vision impairment is any degree of interference in a person’s ability to see comfortably without the use of any devices or spectacles. Vision impairment also includes poor vision and blindness. Eye care simply refers to care and treatment of eyes. Eye care refers taking good care of the eye so that vision impairment can be prevented, minimized or reduced. Eye care is the provision of adequate, inexpensive, and easily accessible treatment that fully and expertly addresses patients’ eye care [...]
- [Diarrhea: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/diarrhea-causes-symptoms-treatment/): What is Diarrhea Diarrhea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day (or more frequent passage than is normal for the individual)- World Health Organization Diarrhea is characterized as having three or more loose, watery stools per day Diarrhea is also commonly known as ‘intestinal flu’ or ‘stomach flu’. It is one of the most common health issues. It might range from a minor, temporary illness to one that could be fatal. Diarrhea can be acute, persistent, or chronic: Acute diarrhea: is a frequent issue that usually lasts one or two days and [...]
- [Social Problems: Drug Abuse, Child Abuse & Suicide](https://publichealthnotes.com/social-problems-drug-abuse-child-abuse-suicide/): What Do You Mean by Social Problems? Social problem is a social condition or behavior that a segment of society views as harmful to members of society and in need of remedy. Social problems are social conditions that disrupt or damage the society. A social problem has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed Thus in social problem there must be two things: An objective condition, like crime, poverty, communal tensions and so forth, The presence and magnitude of which can be observed, verified and [...]
- [Vitamin K: Sources, Function & Deficiency](https://publichealthnotes.com/vitamin-k-sources-function-deficiency/): What is Vitamin K? Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that our body needs for blood clotting and helping wounds to heal. Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that our bodies store in adipose tissue in the liver. Vitamin K is an essential nutrient that plays a vital role in blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating blood calcium levels. Vitamin K helps to make various proteins that are needed for clotting the blood and building the bones. Vitamin K is available in two forms. They are phylloquinone and menaquinone. The predominant kind is phylloquinone, which is found in green leafy [...]
- [Vitamin E: Sources, Function & Deficiency](https://publichealthnotes.com/vitamin-e-sources-function-and-deficiency/): What is Vitamin E? “Vitamin E” is a fat-soluble vitamin with specific antioxidant properties. Vitamin E is a nutrient that’s important to vision, reproduction, and the health of your blood, brain and skin. Vitamin E is an important type of vitamin that is required for proper function of many organs in the body. Vitamin E is found in several forms but alpha-tocopherol is the only one that is used by the body. Therefore, it is also sometimes referred to as tocopherol. There are eight chemical variations of vitamin E that are found in nature, each of which has a different [...]
- [Vitamin D: Sources, Function & Deficiency](https://publichealthnotes.com/vitamin-d-sources-function-deficiency/): What is Vitamin D? Vitamin D is a nutrient that is required in our body in order to develop and maintain strong bones. Vitamin D is a type of vitamin that helps the body to absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is added to certain foods, found naturally in a few, and available as a dietary supplement. Vitamin D is both a nutrient that we eat and a hormone that our body produces This is due to the fact that vitamin D is required for our body to properly absorb calcium, which is [...]
- [Vitamin C: Sources, Function & Deficiency](https://publichealthnotes.com/vitamin-c-sources-function-and-deficiency/): What is Vitamin C? Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin that occurs naturally in some foods, is added to others, and can be obtained as a dietary supplement. Vitamin C is an essential vitamin that must be consumed regularly in the diet. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a nutrient that our body needs to form blood vessels, cartilage, muscle and collagen in bones. Vitamin C is also important for the body’s healing process. Vitamin C also acts as an antioxidant that helps to protect our cells against the effects of free radicals As vitamin C [...]
- [Vitamin B: Sources, Function & Deficiency](https://publichealthnotes.com/vitamin-b-sources-function-deficiency/): What is Vitamin B? The term “vitamin B” refers to not one, but a group of eight water-soluble vitamins that are necessary for various metabolic functions Vitamin B complex is another name for vitamin B The names of eight types of vitamin B are: B1 (Thiamine) B2 (Riboflavin) B3 (Niacin) B5 (Pantothenic Acid) B6 (Pyridoxine) B7 (Biotin) B9 (Folic Acid) B12 (Cobalamin) Vitamin B is widely available in both plant and animal dietary sources and cannot be stored by the body, must be replenished daily In general, vegetarian food has less vitamin B than non-vegetarian food. Hence, Vitamin B supplements are [...]
- [Hypertension: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/hypertension/): What is Hypertension? When the force or pressure of the blood pushing against blood vessel walls becomes excessively high, it is known as hypertension of high blood pressure. Hypertension (HTN) refers to the increased pressure of the blood against the blood vessel walls of the body. Hypertension (HTN) is also commonly known as ‘high blood pressure’ Clinically, systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure of ≤ 90 mmHg are considered as having ‘hypertension’. The reading of blood pressure has two numbers; systolic and diastolic. Systolic blood pressure, which appears as the top number, measures the force exerted [...]
- [Macroeconomics & Microeconomics](https://publichealthnotes.com/macroeconomics-microeconomics/): What is Macroeconomics? Macroeconomics is primarily concerned with the study of aggregates or study of economy as a whole Macroeconomics tackles broad-based issues that affect the entire country. Macroeconomics covers the overall behavior, structure, performance, and decision-making of the economy. In macroeconomics, we examine “A,” or aggregate. This means that everything is examined from a comprehensive standpoint in macroeconomics. ‘Macro’ is short form for big. In macroeconomics, we learn about total supply and total demand. Macroeconomics deal with static analysis. Macroeconomics follows a top-down approach, and involves strategies like –  Overall economic growth of a country. Reasons that are likely [...]
- [Bipolar Disorder: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/bipolar-disorder-causes-symptoms-treatment/): What is Bipolar Disorder? Bipolar disorder (BD), formerly called manic depression, is a mental health illness that results in sharp mood swings, including emotional highs (mania or hypomania), and lows (depression). Bipolar disorder (BD) patients go through severe emotional bouts, or mood episodes, that normally last a few days to a few weeks. These mood swings might be classified as depressive or manic/hypomanic (an unusually cheerful or irritated mood) (sad mood). Most people with BD also have times of neutral mood. People with bipolar disorder can live full and productive lives when properly treated. Causes of Bipolar Disorder There is [...]
- [Labor During Pregnancy: Signs, Stages & Pain Management](https://publichealthnotes.com/labor-during-pregnancy-signs-stages-pain-management/): Labor During Pregnancy Labor during pregnancy is a series of continuous, progressive contractions of the uterus that help the cervix dilate (open) and efface (thin) so that the fetus can come outside. Labor during pregnancy is a set of actions that occur in a woman’s genital organ in an endeavor to push the fetus through the vagina into the outside world. Labor during pregnancy is defined as the beginning of painful, regular contractions during pregnancy at a rate of more than one every ten minutes. In other words, labor during pregnancy is the method by which the fetus leaves the [...]
- [Postpartum Depression](https://publichealthnotes.com/postpartum-depression/): What is Postpartum Depression? Postpartum depression is a depression that occurs in female during the postpartum period. Postpartum depression refers to the type of depression that takes place in mothers after the child birth. Postpartum depression (PPD) is also known as postnatal depression Postpartum is the term used to describe the time after childbirth. Some women have postpartum depression (PPD), which is a complicated combination of behavioral, emotional, and physical changes. The DSM-5, a manual used to identify mental disorders, classifies PPD as a type of serious depression that starts in women within 4 weeks of giving birth. PPD is [...]
- [Blood Transfusion: Types, Benefits & Risks](https://publichealthnotes.com/blood-transfusion/): What is Blood Transfusion? Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood (intravenously) into a person’s circulation. Blood transfusion is a reasonably simple medical procedure which involves the transfer of blood or blood components into a person’s body through an Intravenous line (IV) It is a technique for replenishing your body’s blood after an illness or injury. A patient receives entire blood or one of its components during a transfusion via an IV, a  little needle is used to introduce this tiny tube into a vein. Blood transfusions are frequently performed as a life-saving measure to replenish blood cells or blood [...]
- [Deafness and Hearing Loss](https://publichealthnotes.com/deafness-and-hearing-loss/): What is Deafness and Hearing Loss? Deafness and hearing loss is the inability or reduced ability of a person to hear properly. Deafness and hearing loss are primarily the problems related to ear or hearing. Deafness and hearing loss is a condition where a person cannot hear the voice or sound as perfectly as a normal person should be hearing i.e., hearing thresholds of 20 dB or better in both ears. What is Deafness? The total inability to hear sound is known as deafness. Deafness happens when a person is unable to perceive speech through hearing, even when sound is [...]
- [Ectopic Pregnancy: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/ectopic-pregnancy-causes-symptoms-treatment/): What is Ectopic pregnancy? Ectopic pregnancy is a condition in which the fertilized eggs implant in other areas than the uterus. A ectopic pregnancy is a condition where the fertilized eggs implants outside the uterine lining; such as fallopian tube, abdominal cavity or cervix Normally, a fertilized egg is supposed to implant or get attached to the uterine lining/uterus. When it does not, it is known as ectopic pregnancy. Ectopic pregnancy is a complication of pregnancy where embryo attaches outside the uterus. It is a life threatening condition that requires immediate medical care and treatment. In 90% of cases, ectopic [...]
- [Epilepsy: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/epilepsy-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Epilepsy? Epilepsy is a neurological (Central Nervous System) disorder where the brain activity becomes abnormal, leading to seizures or periods of unusual sensation, behavior and sometimes loss of awareness. Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain characterized by repeated seizures. It is a common condition that affects brain and causes frequent seizures- burst of electrical activity in the brain. Epilepsy is a long-term, non-communicable condition of the central nervous system. Here the abnormal brain activity results in seizures or episodes of unusual behavior, feelings, and occasionally loss of consciousness. Recurrent seizures are the defining feature of epilepsy. Seizures [...]
- [Cholera: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/cholera-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/): What is Cholera? Cholera is a severe diarrheal disease caused by an infection of the Vibrio cholerae bacteria. Cholera is a bacterial disease primarily spread through contaminated water. Cholera is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to dehydration and even death, if left untreated. The extreme diarrhea and dehydration brought on by cholera can be lethal within hours, if left untreated. Key Facts About Cholera The risk of cholera is highest where poverty, war or natural disasters force people to live in crowded conditions without adequate sanitation. The majority of infected people will have no [...]
- [Dengue: Causes, Symptoms, Prevention & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/dengue-causes-symptoms-prevention-treatment/): What is Dengue? Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes Dengue is a viral infection that mainly occurs in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. The primary vectors that transmit Dengue are Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and, to a lesser extent. The virus that is responsible for causing dengue is called dengue virus (DENV). Basically, there are four DENV serotypes and it is possible for a person to be infected four times. Dengue or dengue fever or ‘break bone fever’ is a tropical disease caused by any one of four closely [...]
- [Autism: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/autism-causes-symptoms-types-prevention-and-treatment/): What is Autism? Autism is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. Autism refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. Autism, commonly known as Autism Spectrum Disorder, refers to a variety of diseases that affect how the brain develops. A developmental disability known as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects how a person perceives and interacts with others, which can lead to issues with social interaction and communication. Limited and recurring behavioral patterns are another feature of autism. In autism spectrum disorder, the word “spectrum” refers to [...]
- [Kidney Stone: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/kidney-stone-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-treatment/): What is Kidney Stone? Kidney stone are hard deposit made of minerals and salts that form inside our kidneys. A kidney stone is a solid, pebble-like piece of material that can develop in one or both kidneys when the urine contains excessive amounts of a particular mineral. Kidney stone is commonly known as renal calculi, renal lithiasis, nephrolithiasis etc. A kidney stone is an irregularly-shaped solid mass or crystal that can be as small as a grain of sand up to the size of a golf ball. Kidney stones can affect any part of your urinary tract — from your [...]
- [Facial Palsy: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/facial-palsy/): What is Facial Palsy? The term “facial palsy” refers to facial muscle weakness caused by injury to the face nerve (the 7th cranial nerve), which can be temporary or permanent. Facial palsy is also known as facial paralysis. The muscles of the face do not receive the required signals to function properly when a facial nerve is either non-functioning or absent. The affected section of the face becomes paralyzed, affecting movement of the eye(s), mouth, and other parts of the face. Causes of Facial Palsy Although Bell’s palsy is the most well-known cause of facial paralysis, there are many distinct [...]
- [Keto Diet: What is Ketogenic Diet?](https://publichealthnotes.com/keto-diet-what-is-ketogenic-diet/): What is Ketogenic Diet? Ketogenic diet is a diet which provides more calories from protein and fat and less calories from carbohydrates Ketogenic diet is a high fat, adequate protein and low carbohydrate dietary therapy that is primarily used in medicine to treat epilepsy in children. Ketogenic diet is also known as Paleo, South beach, Atkins diet, low carb high fat (LCHF), low carb diet and so on. ‘Ketogenic’ is the term used for ‘low carb diet’. Ketogenic diet is commonly called as ‘Keto diet’. Role of Ketogenic Diet The ketones are created in the liver and used as energy [...]
- [Drowning: Risk Factors, Stages, Types, Prevention and Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/drowning-risk-factors-stages-types-prevention-and-treatment/): What is Drowning? Drowning is the process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion or immersion in liquid. Drowning is a type of asphyxia death caused by fluid aspiration into the airways caused by submersion of the body in water or a fluid media. Drowning is the result of submersion/immersion in liquid causing breathing impairment; consequences include death, illness, and no morbidity. Submersion of the mouth and nose is sufficient; total submersion is not required. Key Facts Drowning is the world’s third most common cause of unintentional injury death, accounting for 7% of all injury-related deaths. Every year, an estimated 236 000 [...]
- [Cholesterol: Types, Importance, Prevention & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/cholesterol-types-prevention-treatment/): What is Cholesterol? Cholesterol is a type of lipid that our body needs for good health, but in the right amount. Cholesterol is a waxy fat like substance that our liver produces naturally. Cholesterol is a waxy substance found in our blood. Cholesterol is a member of the sterol family and has a complex molecular structure. Our body needs cholesterol to build healthy cells, but high levels of cholesterol can increase the risk of heart disease. It is a fatty substance (lipid) that is necessary for a healthy life and is a component of cell membranes and intracellular organelle membrane. It [...]
- [Maternal and Child Health](https://publichealthnotes.com/maternal-and-child-health/): What is Maternal and Child Health? Maternal and Child Health (MCH) care is the health services provided to mothers (women in their child bearing age) and children. The targets for Maternal and Child Health are all women in their reproductive age groups, i.e., 15 – 49 years of age, children, school age population and adolescents Maternal and Child Health is a package of comprehensive health care services designed to meet the promotive, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative needs of pregnant women before, during, and after delivery, as well as infants and preschool children from birth to five years. What is Maternal [...]
- [Demography: Process, Elements, Importance, Tools and Application](https://publichealthnotes.com/demography-process-elements-importance-tools-and-application/): What is Demography? Demography is the scientific study of human populations primarily with respect to their size, their structure and their development Demography is the statistical and mathematical study of the size, composition, and spatial distribution of human populations, as well as how these features vary over time Demography is defined as the statistical study of people/human population. Demography refers to the concepts and methods used to examine human populations The word ‘Demography’ is derived from two Greek words: ‘demos’ which means people, and ‘graphy’, which means science. The examples of demographic data are employment, education, income, marriage rates, birth and [...]
- [Leprosy: Causes, Transmission, Symptoms & Treatment](https://publichealthnotes.com/leprosy-causes-transmission-symptoms-types-treatment/): What is Leprosy? Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae, an acid-fast, rod-shaped bacillus. Leprosy mainly affects the skin, the peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract, and the eyes. It is a chronic, progressive bacterial infection. It is more prevalent in the tropical and subtropical areas. Hansen’s disease is another name for leprosy. Leprosy has existed for centuries of time. On every continent, people have been affected by its breakouts World Leprosy Day is celebrated every year on the last Sunday of January. Key Facts of Leprosy Leprosy is a slow-moving chronic infectious disease caused by [...]
- [Family Health: Scope, Importance, Components and Indicators](https://publichealthnotes.com/family-health-scope-importance-components-and-indicators/): What is Family Health? According to the World Health Organization (WHO), family health is a state of positive dynamic interaction between family members which enables each and every member of the family to experience optimal physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being whether disease or infirmity is present or not. Family health is a state in which the family is a resource for the day-to-day living and health of its members. “Family health is more than the sum of the personal health of individuals (including father) who form the family since it also takes in to consideration-interaction in terms of health (physical [...]
- [Human Papilloma Virus (HPV): Transmission, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Preventive Measures](https://publichealthnotes.com/human-papilloma-virus-hpv/): What is Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)? Human papilloma virus (HPV) is a viral infection that’s passes between people through skin-to-skin contact. Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is the name of a virus family that is quite common. Most people remain unaffected with this virus, but other some types can result in genital warts or cancer. (Genital warts are soft growths that appear on the genitals. They are Sexually Transmitted Infections and can cause pain, discomfort, and itching.) Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is also one of the most common Sexually Transmitted Illness (STI). HPV infection is a virus that creates growths on [...]
- [Ageing: Types, Stages, Causes, Signs, Health Problems and Solutions](https://publichealthnotes.com/ageing/): What is Ageing? Ageing is a series of physiological changes in an organism that results in reduction of biological functions and the organism’s ability to adapt to metabolic stress. The process of ageing is defined as the accumulation of structural and functional changes in an organism as time passes. The alterations appear as a reduction in fertility and physiological capabilities from the organism’s peak age till death. Key Facts The proportion of the world’s population aged 60 and up will nearly treble from 12% to 22% between 2015 and 2050. By 2020, the number of persons aged 60 and more [...]
- [Microbiota: Functions, Advantages, Factors & Improvement Techniques](https://publichealthnotes.com/microbiota-functions-benefits-factors-affecting-improvement-techniques/): What is Microbiota? Microbiota are the large number of microorganisms including a large number of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, that are present in our body. Microbiota, is an assemble of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic micro-organisms that resides in a particular habitat or environment. Human body consists of trillions of microbes, or bacteria which are useful as well as harmful. Every human being consist anywhere between 10 trillion and 100 trillion microbial cells in symbiotic relationship and has co-evolved with host over thousands of years to form an intricate and mutually beneficial relationship What is Gut Microbiota? Human body consists [...]

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- [Authors](https://publichealthnotes.com/about-2/): Kusum Wagle (Founder of Public Health Notes) Masters in Public Health (MPH), BPH Ms. Kusum Wagle is a Senior public health professional with more than a decade of experience in Public Health Sector. She holds a Masters Degree in Public Health from BRAC James P. Grant School of Public Health, Bangladesh as a World Health Organization Tropical Disease Research (WHO-TDR) Scholar. Ms. Wagle has gained profound experiences in public health sector under different thematic areas of health, nutrition, sexual and reproductive health, maternal and newborn health, research etc., targeting diverse audience of different age groups. She has performed diverse roles [...]
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